Jain Philosophy (2) 07 – Practicability of Ahimsa (Nonviolence)

Ahimsa is cardinal principle of Jainism; the entire Jain ethical code has been laid down with a view of transforming this principle into actual practice. As a result, maximum importance has been attached to the observance of Ahimsa as a basis of right conduct leading to the attainment of salvation.  The Jain scriptures have specifically prescribed the rules of conduct to the minutest details, in connection with the observance of the Ahimsa vow in all its aspects, and in making it as faultless as possible. From a close examination of the injunctions laid down by Jain scriptures for the actual observance of the vow of Ahimsa is practical.

However, realizing extremely wide theoretical dimensions of these rules of conduct, and the minute implications involved in the actual observance of these rules of conduct continuously and without any possible fault, a question is sometimes raised about the practicability of the vow of Ahimsa.

Concept of Himsä (Violence)

Injuring any living being in one’s thought, speech and by physical means is violence.

Ahimsa is among the twelve Vratas or vows of Jain religion, first and prominent position has been assigned to the Vrata or vow of Ahimsa.  Ahimsa Vrata is based on the fundamental principle of avoidance of or abstention from Himsä, injury to sentient beings.

Himsä: Sthul and Sukshma (Macro and Micro)

The Sthul (macro) Himsä is the destruction of the higher forms of life from Dvindriyas (two to five sensed beings) and it is forbidden to all Jains.

Sukshma (micro) Himsä means taking of life in any form including the killing of Ekendriyas (one_sensed beings) and it is obligatory for Jain ascetics to abstain from this kind of Himsä. The lay Jains are also encouraged to avoid as far as possible injuring and unnecessary destruction of Sthävar Jivas, (immobile souls or Ekendriyas).

Himsä: Dravya and Bhäva (Physical and Mental)

 

Dravya Himsä is the actual act of hurt or injury and Bhäva Himsä, the intention to hurt or injure to any living beings, both are responsible for accumulation of karma. It is the act with intension that accumulates most Karma.

“Pramatta_Yogät Präna_Vyaparopanam Himsä,” or “the destruction of life due to an act involving negligence is violence”. The term Pramäda here yields two meanings: (1) The mental state of attachment and aversion and (2) negligence.  Therefore, to destroy the life of a living being through passion of attachment and aversion is violence; and to destroy the life of a living being through negligence is also violence.

As per the internal aspects even to neglect ones own soul i.e.: to let soul stay in the Mithyätva stage is also Himsä. Himsä is caused even when passions to hurt others arise in the mind. Purushärtha_Siddhi_Upäya states Ahimsa in the following terms: “Assuredly, the nonappearance of attachment and other passions is Ahimsa and their appearance is Himsä.

Ahimsa Vrata (The Vow of Ahimsa)

Since the very idea of Himsä has been considered quite abominable and has been condemned in strongest possible terms in Jain philosophy, the ethical code laid down for the Jains has given maximum importance to the observance of the Ahimsa Vrata, which puts into practice the principle of minimizing of Himsä in daily life.  Naturally, Jainism has assigned the first position to the vow of Ahimsa among the five main vows prescribed for continuous observance by its followers.  It is, therefore, necessary to see and understand the various aspects and implications of the Jain vow of Ahimsa.

Ahimsa Mahä_vrata (Major Vows)

Ahimsa is the first and the foremost of the five Mahä_vratas, (great vows) prescribed by the Jain religion.  Ahimsa Mahä_vrata has been defined in ‘Ratna_Karanda_Shrävakächär’ as “abstaining  from the commission of five sins, Himsä and the rest in their three forms, Krita, (ones own actions) Karita (by getting it done through others) and Anumodana, (encouraging and /or approving to do it) with yoga the activities of mind, speech and body constitutes the Mahä Vrata of great ascetics.”

Further, by the combination of these Yogas and Karans, it is clear that Himsä can be committed in nine ways, by the application of three Karans to each of the three Yogas. Since this Ahimsa Mahä_vrata is difficult to practice, it is prescribed only for observance by monks and nuns.

Ahimsa Anu_vrata (Minor Vows)

Jain scriptures have prescribed the vow of Ahimsa with a lessened degree of intensity for observance by householders and called it Ahimsa Anu_vrata (minor vow). The authoritative sacred book ‘Ratna_karanda Shrävakächär’ has defined it as “Refraining from injuring living beings having two or more senses, with a deliberate act of the mind, speech or body, in any of the two ways, Krita and Karita.  It is called Ahimsa Anu_vrata by the wise.”

Thus, in Ahimsa Anu_vrata, a layman does not intentionally injure any form of life above the class of one_sensed beings (vegetables and the like) by an act of the mind, speech, or body and by Krita or Karita.

Classification of Himsä: (Violence)

Himsä has been classified into two categories:

• Ärambhaja or Ärambhi Himsä, (occupational violence)
• Anärambhaja or Anärambhi or Sankalpi Himsä, (non_occupational or intentional violence)

Ächärya Amitagati, the famous Jain saint in “Shrävakächär” described two major kinds of Himsä and their application in actual practice by the people in the following terms: “Himsä has been said to be of two kinds, Ärambhaja, arising from occupations, and Anärambhaja, not due to any occupation.  He who has renounced the life of householder certainly avoids both kinds of Himsä.  One with mild passion, while living the life of a householder, cannot completely avoid Ärambhaja Himsä when performing various occupations.” Himsä or injury involved in the actual execution or conduct of an occupation is known as Ärambhi Himsä.

Ärambhi Himsä is further subdivided into three types:

Udyami Himsa	Industrial violence
Gruharambhi Himsa	Common violence
Virodhi Himsa	Defensive violence

Himsä or injury involved in the actual execution or conduct of an occupation is known as Ärambhi Himsä.

Udyami Himsä is injury that is unavoidably committed in the exercise of one’s profession or occupation.

Gruhärambhi Himsä is the kind of injury, which is invariably committed in the performance of necessary domestic acts, such as preparation of food, keeping the house, body, clothes and other things clean, construction of buildings, wells, gardens, and other structures, and keeping cattle for farming purpose.

Virodhi Himsä is the kind of injury, which is necessarily committed in defense of person and property, against thieves, robbers, assailants, and enemies, in meeting their aggression, and in causing the least possible injury necessary under the circumstance.

Himsä not inherent or unrelated to an occupation but committed with the objective of fulfilling certain desires is called Anärambhi or Sankalpi Himsä.  Hunting, offering animal sacrifices, killing for food, amusement, decoration, unnecessary cutting of vegetation, or walking on grass are illustrations of Anärambhi or Sankalpi Himsä.

It has been ordained by the Jain religion that one who has renounced all household connections and has adopted the discipline of a monk or nun should avoid all kinds of above mentioned Himsä and that one who is still in the householder’s stage should abstain from (Sankalpi Himsä) intentional injury, and should try one’s best to avoid three kinds of (Ärambhi Himsä) occupational injury, as much as it is possible.

Observance of Nonviolence by Householders:

• He/She should avoid intentional injury and will reduce violence as much as possible for industrial, domestic, and defensive purposes.
• He/She should avoid major violence and reduce minor violence as much as possible.
• He/She should reduce/avoid as much as possible both the intentions of violence and the acts of violence.

Out of the nine fold acts of violence, a householder will avoid six folds, and the remaining three folds will be reduced as much as possible.

Observance of Nonviolence by Ascetics

Ascetics are required to observe complete renunciation (Autsargiki Nivritti). They avoid all of the above_mentioned four kinds of Himsä.

As ascetics are not at all involved with the activities carried out by householders, they do not perform major or minor violence.  Ascetics strictly avoid internal aspects of violence (Bhäva Himsä) and avoid external violence (Dravya Himsä).  The ascetics observe Ahimsa in a nine_fold way as laid down by Jain scriptures: they avoid committing Himsä by the self, through others, and approving and/or encouraging others, and by the speech, mind and body (3 x 3 = 9).

This complete renunciation of Himsä in all nine ways may seem difficult and may raise questions, such as “what about when they walk, sit, sleep, take meals, or speak ?” Even though these questions pose a problem, it has been answered in the following way:

“The ascetic should walk, sit, sleep, and take meals with care and vigilance to avoid injury to any living beings.” This way, according to the Jain scripture Dasha_vaikälika_Sutra, an ascetic can practice Ahimsa to the maximum extent possible.

Denunciation of Himsä (Violence)

Taking into account the bad and reprehensible nature of Himsä, the Jain sacred texts have condemned the observance of Himsä in the strongest possible terms.

According to ‘Ächäränga Sutra’, Himsä is a great impediment in spiritual awakening. A person who indulges in Himsä cannot reach enlightenment.  “Himsä is always harmful and injurious, and it is the main cause of non_enlightenment.”  Similarly, in the “Sutra_krutänga Sutra” all injurious activities have been categorically denounced.  “Knowing that all evils and sorrows arise from injury to living beings, and that it leads to unending enmity and hatred, and is the root cause of all fears, a wise man who has become awakened, should refrain from all sinful activities”.

Similarly, in the “Uttarädhyayan Sutra,” any kind of injury to living beings is censured in the following terms. “Seeing that everything that happens to somebody concerns (affects) him personally, one should be friendly towards (all) beings; being completely free from fear and hatred, one should never injure any living being”.  According to the Dasha Vaikälika Sutra, “All living creatures desire to live.  Nobody wishes to die and hence it is that Jain monks must avoid the terrible sin of injury to living beings”.

Jnänärnava describes most reprehensible Himsä as “Himsä alone is a gateway to the miserable state, it is also the ocean of sin, it is itself a terrible hell and it is surely the most dense darkness.” According to Jnänärnava, “If a person is accustomed to committing injury, then all his virtues like selflessness, greatness, difficult penance, bodily suffering and liberality or munificence are worthless.”

Vegetarianism (Rejection of Eating Animal Food)

Vegetarianism remains to this day a cardinal ethic of Jain thought and practices. Each form of life, even water and trees, possesses consciousness and energy. Nonviolence, (Ahimsa), the primary basis of vegetarianism, has long been central to the religious traditions of India, especially Jainism. Jain religion has consistently upheld the sanctity of life, whether human, animal, or even the most elemental of life. More than refraining from violence, vegetarianism is a deep reverence for all life.

Jain philosophy emphasizes us in being vigilant to minimize the harm we cause to other living beings and to direct our actions and intentions to revere all forms of life. This requires vigilance, awareness of motives, and fearlessness to live in tune with nature’s laws. The underlying feeling should be not to arouse fear in any living being, but it should be of love and compassion to all the living beings. It is true that just by breathing, using water, walking, and cutting trees, we are destroying living beings, but the underlying emphasis and awareness should always be to minimize the harm we cause to living beings.

The more developed its sensory apparatus is, the more a life form is sensitive to pain. Since fish, birds, and animals have a well_developed sense of pain, we must refuse to be a cause to their agony and pain. We must not use or exploit animals and other living beings for our selfish and short_sited pleasures and benefits. All animals cling to life and struggle to survive, and fear pain and death. We must feel for their helplessness in the face of man’s gluttony, greed, and callousness. We must do everything we can so that they live un_tormented and unharmed to the best of our abilities. The observance of Ahimsa Vrata invariably means the total rejection of the concept of meat eating because commercially flesh cannot be procured without causing destruction of animal life.

We must also realize that every fruit, leaf, or grain that ends up on our plate had to lose its life in order to give us life. Nevertheless, the sad fact is that without plants we cannot survive.

What Do Vegetarians Eat?

The staples of a vegetarian diet are grain, legumes, vegetables, fruit, nuts, and seeds. Protein can be obtained easily through a variety of grains and legumes. Fiber and essential vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates are obtained from raw vegetables and fruits. Leafy green vegetables are especially rich in iron.

Do Vegetarians Eat Dairy and Eggs?

Vegetarians who use dairy products are called lacto vegetarians. Those who do not even use dairy products are vegans. Vegans believe that cow’s or any other animal’s milk is meant for calves, and not humans. Nowadays, dairy (milk, butter, ghee, ice_cream, cheese) foods are produced with cruelty to animals, which vegetarians and vegans do not support. In addition, the dairy industry is inherently linked to the meat industry.  When female cows stop giving milk or its quantity is reduced at a certain age, they are sent to the meat industry for slaughtering. If they give birth to a male calf, it is raised on an iron deficient diet, to make meat tender. Hence consuming any dairy products is a cruelty to animals.

In poultry farms, chickens are considered no better than egg_producing machines. They are housed in small, congested cages known as chicken_havens. Due to the shortage of space, they naturally become violent, offensive, obsessed and quarrelsome. They attack one another in a barbarous manner. To prevent them from fighting and wounding one another, they are debeaked.  Due to debeaking, they are unable to drink even water.

A fertilized egg is the pre_birth stage of a chicken.  To eat a fertilized egg is to consume a chicken before its birth. Unfertilized eggs are the result of the sexual cycle of a chicken and are very unnatural. The egg produced without any contact with the male bird (and thus producing an infertile egg) is also animate because it is born out of the chicken’s body with its blood and cells. No egg, fertile or infertile, is without life (inanimate).  Both are non_vegetarian foods.

Animal Cruelty and Ecological Impact

The planet earth is suffering, the escalating loss of species, destruction of ancient rain forests to create pasturelands for livestock, loss of topsoil and the consequent increase of water impurities and air pollution have all been traced to the single fact of non_vegetarian food (meat, chicken,and dairy products) in the human diet.  No single decision that we can make as individuals or as a race can have such a dramatic effect on the improvement of our planetary ecology as the decision to not eat non_vegetarian food. The choice of a vegetarian (absolutely no animal products) diet is an expression of a sincere consideration for reducing cruelty to animals as well as for the ecology of the planet.  In addition, billions of starving people could be fed if only the raising of livestock was stopped.

Consider following facts:

Slaughtering of Animals in USA

• Cattle – 130,000 slaughtered per day
• Calves – 7,000 slaughtered per day
• Hogs – 360,000 slaughtered per day
• Chickens – 24,000,000 slaughtered per day

Cruelty to Cows by Dairy Industries

• Cows are kept pregnant continually
• Slaughtering 70% to 80% of baby calves within six months by the Veal industry or within five years by the beef industry
• Slaughtering the mother cows five years after their fertile life (life expectancy is 15 years)
• Everyday hormones or drugs are injected to increase milk yield.

Greenhouse Effect

• World’s 1.3 billion cows annually produce 100 million tons of methane a powerful greenhouse gas which traps 25 times as much solar heat as CO2

Water Consumption

• Slaughtering animals requires hundreds of millions of gallons of water every day. The waste in these places, estimated at about two billion tons a year, mostly ends up in waterways that pollutes and kills thousands of fish, and creates a human health problem.
• Livestock (Cattle, Calves, Hogs, and Pigs) production accounts for more than half of all the water consumed in USA.

Land Usage

• A third of the surface of North America is devoted to grazing
• Half of American croplands grow livestock feed for meat and dairy products
• 2% of US cropland produces fruits and vegetables while 64% of US cropland is for producing livestock feed
• One acre of prime land can produce 5,000 lb.  of Cherries, 10,000 lb. of Green beans, 30,000 lb.  of Carrots, 40,000 lb.  of Potatoes, 50,000 lb.  of Tomatoes, or 250 lb. of Beef
• 220 million acres of land in the USA have been deforested for livestock production
• 85% of the annual US topsoil loss is directly associated with raising livestock

Cost Comparison

• The cost of raw materials consumed to produce food from livestock is greater than the value of all oil, gas and coal consumed in America.
• Growing grains, vegetables and fruits uses less than 5% as much raw materials as does meat and dairy production
• 2 calories of fossil fuel are used to produce 1 calorie of protein from soybeans, while 78 calories of fossil fuel are used to produce 1 calorie of protein from beef
• 6.9 kg of grain and soybeans is needed to make 1 kg of boneless trimmed pork

Solution to World Hunger Problem

According to “Diet for a New America”: If Americans reduce their meat/dairy intake by just 10%, the savings in grains and soybeans could feed 60 million people per year worldwide. About 24,000 people die every day from hunger or hunger related causes. Three fourths of the deaths are children under the age of five.

Rejection of Drinking Liquor

For the observance of the Nonviolence Vow (Ahimsa –Vrata), it has been specifically laid down that a person should renounce drinking alcohol.  According to the sacred text of Purushärtha Siddhi_Upäya, “alcohol stupefies the mind; one whose mind is stupefied forgets piety; and the person who forgets piety commits violence without hesitation.” It is important to understand the process of production of alcohol and beer.  The storage for it for several years involves growth of many living beings. Significant dishonorable passions like anger, pride, deceit, greed, fear, disgust, ridicule, grief, boredom, and lust arise due to the inhibition of senses while drinking liquor and these passions are nothing but different aspects of violence not mentioning domestic violence resulting from consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Abandonment of Honey

Along with the renunciation of liquor and meat, giving up honey is also included in the observance of the non_violence vow. The use of honey invariably entails the destruction of life as even the smallest drop of honey represents the death of innumerable bees, larva, pupa, and their eggs in  the honeycomb. In addition, it is important to note that it takes nearly a million bees to create 1 pound of honey and in fact, honey is the regurgitated material from the stomach of bees.

Dress and Decoration

Jains are also required to pursue the path of nonviolence in the way they dress.  They should not wear furs and plumes that are obtained by torturing and then killing animals and birds. For the same reason, the use of silk and woolen garments is prohibited for all Jains. We should also avoid all leather articles.

Basic Positive Aspects of Ahimsa

Even though the doctrine of Ahimsa has been given utmost importance by Jainism in the ethical code laid down for constant observance by all sections of society and its practicability has stood the test of time for many centuries, still a charge is made against the doctrine of Ahimsa to the effect that it is essentially negative in character because it always prohibits people from doing certain activities. It is argued that in Jainism Ahimsa is treated as mere abstention from Himsä, and by applying this principle of abstinence of activities in different fields, people are negatively advised to not to speak lies, and not to steal things, not to become unchaste, not to have worldly attachments. However, from a close scrutiny of the vow of Ahimsa and its implications in the actual life of people, it is evident that the charge is unfounded. It is true that Jainism does put severe restrictions on the conduct of people in their worldly life. These restrictions have been levied with a view to provide guidelines to the person so that he can commit as little injury as possible to other living beings while discharging his duties and carrying out his normal avocations.  However, it must be noted that the meaning of Ahimsa has not been confined to this negative aspect only; it has definitely been extended so as to include the positive aspect also. That is why it has been strongly advocated in Jainism that householders should always strive to extend charity to others who are in need of help, along with the observance of restrictions levied on their conduct. It means that the positive aspect has been made an inherent part of the doctrine of Ahimsa.

Hence it has been enjoined upon householders to follow the practice of giving Däna (religious gifts or charity), to organize welfare activities with the help of charities for the benefit not only of the weaker sections of society but also for animals and birds, and to indoctrinate the spirit of toleration towards the followers of other faiths or religions.

Däna (Encouragement to Grant Charities)

Having renounced all possessions, to devote oneself completely to the service of other is the acme of donation. A man who has renounced all his possessions remains engrossed in the works beneficent to both himself and others, is satisfied with the bare necessities of life, entertains no desire to accumulate anything, and employs all his energies in achieving the noble, takes the least from the society and offers the most to it.  When he continuously offers the benefits of his spiritual experiences to the masses out of pure affection, then his donation of services is highly superior to the donation of uncountable wealth by the richest of the rich. Mahävir and other saints who renounced all their possessions are such donors as are greatly superior to those rich men of the world who offered their uncountable wealth in donation.

Just as offering money to the deserving is donation, so also showing the good and righteous path to someone through one’s speech, giving virtuous advice to others, doing good to others through one’s speech are also forms of donation.  Thus, we can perform the duty of donation in various ways. Donation of that thing which is needed most at a particular time is great at that time.

While treading the path of righteousness and morality and leading a diligent life, to impart pure and useful knowledge to students, to disseminate noble and virtuous ideas among the people, or to exhort others to devote their lives to good activities is superior to the donation of money. Therefore, donation of knowledge is highly superior to that of money. Service is also the best form of donation.

There are four objectives of donation.  They are as follows:

• To atone for the sins like unjust earning committed in the past.
• To employ in good activities the excess wealth saved after using it for one’s comforts.
• To accomplish the philanthropic activities like constructing and maintaining educational institutions, hospitals, religious places, etc.
• To serve righteous persons, saints, the learned, etc.

In the Bhagavati Sutra, Gautam Swami asked a question to Mahävir Swami: “How many ways are there to God?” Bhagawän’s answer was: “There are as many ways as there are atoms in the universe, but the best and shortest is Service.” In the Sutra, Mahävir Swami also explains: “One who serves the sick and the miserable serves me through the right faith; and one who serves me through the right faith does service to the sick and the miserable.”

According to Tattvärtha Sutra: “Charity is the giving of one’s belongings for the good of one’s self and of others.” Such charity or gifts are always recommended because in giving one’s belongings to others one exercises control over his greed, which is a form of Himsä. Däna is recommended in the celebrated standard sacred Jain text of Purushärtha_Siddhi_Upäya. “In giving a gift one gets over greed, which is a form of Himsä, and hence gifts made to worthy recipients amount to a renunciation of Himsä (observance of Ahimsa).” In the same text, it has been stated that a person automatically becomes greedy if he does not give charity to worthy guests, as follows: “Why a person should be not called greedy if he does not give gifts to a guest who visits his home. It means that the practice of giving gifts is tantamount to the practice of Ahimsa.

Further, with a view to raising the purity involved in giving gifts and in the practice of Ahimsa, it is laid down that the donor must have the following seven qualities:

• Aihika_phalanapekshä (not expecting any gain or reward in this world in exchange for gifts given by him)
• Kshänti (forbearance, and calmness, which means the donor should not get excited if an unexpected or unfavorable thing happens while he is engaged in the pious act of giving gifts)
• Muditva (feelings of happiness and a joyous expression and appearance at the time of giving gifts)
• Nishkapatatä (sincerity and lack of deceit)
• Anasuyatva (no feelings of jealousy or envy)
• Avishäditva (no feelings of sorrow or regret for giving gifts)
• Nirahankäritva (no sense of pride in giving gifts as pride is certainly a bad condition of mind)

Based on various conditions laid down for giving gift pertaining to the qualifications of the donor and the donee, Däna is classified into three types as follows:

• Sättvika Däna, a virtuous or righteous gift, a gift offered to a worthy donee by a donor possessing the seven Dätru Gunas (qualifications of a good donor)
• Räjasa Däna, a passionate or emotional gift, a gift offered in self advertisement for monetary display and in deference to the opinion of others
• Tämasa Däna, a vicious gift, a gift offered through the servants without considering whether the recipient is good or worthy or unworthy and without showing marks of respect.

Of these three types of Dänas, the Sättvika Däna is regarded as the Uttama Däna, the best gift; the Räjasa Däna as the Madhyama Däna, the moderate or the secondary gift; and the Tämasa Däna as the Jaghanya Däna, the worst or detestable gift.

Thus, the Jain scriptures not only encourage householders to give gifts to people but also invariably stress that the conditions laid down and considered proper for the Donor (giver), the gift and the Donee, should always be followed because these three things by means of mutual influencing definitely increase the sanctity of the entire process.Again, for the sake of giving Däna it is not required that the Däna should necessarily a large quantity.  On the contrary, householders are advised to extend even small gifts but they should take care that these small gifts are given to deserving peopl . Such a kind of small gift is praised in the standard sacred Jain work “Ratna_karanda Shrävakächär” as follows: “Even a small Däna (gift) given to a proper donee bears much desirable fruit for souls in the fullness of time, just as the tiny seed of a fig tree, sown in good soil, produces a tree, which castes magnificent shade.”

Support to Welfare Activities

The Däna, with reference to its recipients, has also been divided into two classes, Pätra Däna and Karunä Däna. The Pätra Däna means gifts or offerings made with respect and devotion to worthy recipients and in accordance with the necessary conditions laid down for observance by the people.  Such worthy recipients are generally honest people following righteous path.

Karunä Däna means gifts or offerings made out of compassion to any one who is, being hungry, thirsty, diseased, distressed, disabled, helpless, or the like. Further, the Karunä Däna, or the gift with compassion, is extremely wide in its scope.  In fact, it is not restricted to Jains alone but it is extended to human and even to subhuman beings who are in need of it.

Däna is popularly considered of four kinds:

Ähär Däna                  Gift of food,

Aushadhi Däna           Gift of medicines, and helping the sick

Abhay Däna                Extending fearlessness, Gift of shelter to living beings who are at risk of their life, providing protection from danger, attack, intimidation, or threat

Vidyä (Jnän) Däna      Gift of books, imparting of knowledge, and helping educational institutions.

These four gifts together are “Chaturvidha Däna”, or a fourfold charity and it has been enjoined on householders that they should make special efforts to give these charities to needy humans, animals, and all other living beings.

The Jain scriptures have greatly valued the gifts of food, medicine, shelter and providing knowledge to all living beings with a view to taking practical steps to ameliorate the miserable conditions of afflicted living beings including insects, birds, animals and men.

Furthermore, this positive humanitarian approach to lessen the miseries of living beings is also included in another significant manifestation of Ahimsa in the fifth main vow of householders, Aparigraha Vrata (limiting desires), abstention from greed of worldly possessions. It is obvious that this greed is a form of Himsä, and as such, it has to be consistently avoided by all people as a part of the observance of Ahimsa in the different fields of activities in actual life. This vow aims at putting a self_imposed limit on worldly possessions by individuals according to their needs and desires.  That is why this vow of Aparigraha is many times termed as Parigraha Parimäna_vrata, the vow to limit one’s worldly possessions.  In accordance with this vow, a householder is required to fix beforehand the limit of his maximum belongings, and he cannot exceed it. If he ever happens to earn more than the pre_determined limit, he is required to give it away in ‘‘Chaturvidha Däna’’, the fourfold charities.  This is giving food to the hungry and the poor, saving the lives of creatures in danger, distribution of medicines and spreading knowledge.

In this connection, it is pertinent to note that as a part of the implementation of the vow of Ahimsa including the vow of Aparigraha, for several centuries Jain householders have made it one of their cardinal principles to give these four gifts to all people who are in need of such help. In fact, this help has been extended to the protection and well_being of insects, birds and animals. For this, the Jains have established alms_houses, rest houses, dispensaries and educational institutions wherever they have been concentrated in large numbers. The alms_houses are being conducted in pilgrim places and other centers for the benefit of poor people.  In rest houses (Dharma_shälä), lodging arrangements are  being provided without any charge or at nominal charge in important towns, cities and pilgrim places. The, dispensaries have been providing free medicines to afflicted people. Along with dispensaries for men, the Jains have been conducting special institutions known as Panjarapols for the protection and care of helpless and decrepit animals and birds.  In unusual times of flood and famine, these Panjarapols have been carrying out various activities for animal protection.  There is hardly any town or village in Gujarat or Rajasthan, where a Panjarapol is not present in some form or the other.

Insistence on the Spirit of Toleration

The positive aspect of Ahimsa, as enunciated by Jain scriptures, is extended to the insistence on the spirit of toleration in addition to encouragement of grants to charities and support to organizations for welfare activities.  The Jain scriptures have made the doctrine of Ahimsa extremely comprehensive and have advocated the systemic observance of Ahimsa to the minutest detail. It means that in accordance with the doctrine of Ahimsa, injury through the activities of speech and mind has to be avoided along with the usual injury of the physical type.

In other words, for the observance of Ahimsa, the attitude of tolerance in the intellectual, religious and other fields assumes great importance.  This attitude of tolerance has been propounded by Jain scriptures through the doctrine of Anekäntaväda, the Theory of Multiplicity, which states that a thing can be considered from many points of view.  That is why the tenet of Anekäntaväda always advises the people to find the truth in anything after taking into account all aspects of that thing. This obviously broadens the outlook of people as they are made to look at a thing from different angles. At the same time, the principle of Anekäntaväda does not engender the feelings of enmity or hatred towards other religionists because it believes that other religions also have some truths from their point of view.  Hence, by enunciating the principle of Anekäntaväda, the Jain scriptures have strongly advocated the principle of tolerance and emphatically asserted that it could be applied to intellectual, religious, social and other fields of activities.

In this connection, it can be maintained that toleration is a characteristic of Jain ideology because Jainism has always held that it is wrong, if not dangerous, to presume that one’s own creed alone represents the Truth. Consequently, Jain scriptures have always advised the Jains of all ranks not to harbor any feelings of enmity and hatred towards the followers of other religions, but on the contrary to have a spirit of toleration and cooperation with reference to the members of other religions and even denominations.  Accordingly, Jains have been consistently observing the principle of intellectual and religious toleration.  Even the Jain Monarchs and Generals of the Armed Forces have a clean and commendable record to their credit in this regard. The political history of India knows no cases of persecution by Jain kings, even when Jain monks and laymen have greatly suffered at the hands of other religionists of fanatical temper. In this respect, Dr. B. A. Saletore, the famous historian of Karnatak India, has rightly observed as follows: “The principle of Ahimsa was partly responsible for the greatest contribution of the Jains to Hindu culture – that relating to toleration.  Whatever may be said concerning the rigidity with which they maintained their religious Tenets and the tenacity and skill with which they met and defeated their opponents in religious disputations, it cannot be denied that Jains fostered the principle of toleration more sincerely and at the same time more successfully than any other community in India did.